Elimu: Memory,forgetting and intelligence

MEMORY

In psychology, memory is the process by which information is encoded, stored, and retrieved. Encoding allows information that is from the outside world to reach our senses in the forms of chemical and physical stimuli. Memory is one of the most important ways by which our histories animate our current actions and experiences. Memory is a source of knowledge and is close interactions between remembering, perceiving, and imagining.

Information processing has three main stages in the formation and retrieval of memory:

Encoding or registration: This refers to receiving, processing and combining of received information.

Storage: refers to the retention of information, which has been achieved through the encoding process, in the brain for a prolonged period of time until it is accessed through recall.

Retrieval, recall or recollection: refers to the retrieval of events or information from the past along with encoding and storage.

Principally there are three types of memory namely sensory memory,short term memory and long term memory as discussed below.

Sensory memory

Sensory memory (STSS). Sensory memory is affiliated with the transduction of energy (change from one energy form to another). The environment makes available a variety of sources of information (light, sound, smell, heat, cold, etc.), but the brain only understands electrical energy. The body has special sensory receptor cells that transduce (change from one form of energy to another) this external energy to something the brain can understand. In the process of transduction, a memory is created. This memory is very short (less than 1/2 second for vision; about 3 seconds for hearing).

It is absolutely critical that the learner attend to the information at this initial stage in order to transfer it to the next one. There are two major concepts for getting information into STM:

First, individuals are more likely to pay attention to a stimulus if it has an interesting feature. We are more likely to get an orienting response if this is present. Second, individuals are more likely to pay attention if the stimulus activates a known pattern. To the extent we have students call to mind relevant prior learning before we begin our presentations; we can take advantage of this principle.

Sensory memory holds sensory information for a few seconds or less after an item is perceived. The ability to look at an item, and remember what it looked like with just a second of observation, or memorization, is an example of sensory memory. It is out of cognitive control and is an automatic response. With very short presentations, participants often report that they seem to "see" more than they can actually report.

The first experiments exploring this form of sensory memory were conducted by George Sperling (1963) using the "partial report paradigm". Subjects were presented with a grid of 12 letters, arranged into three rows of four. After a brief presentation, subjects were then played either a high, medium or low tone, cuing them which of the rows to report. Based on these partial report experiments, Sperling was able to show that the capacity of sensory memory was approximately 12 items, but that it degraded very quickly (within a few hundred milliseconds). Because this form of memory degrades so quickly, participants would see the display, but be unable to report all of the items (12 in the "whole report" procedure) before they decayed. This type of memory cannot be prolonged via rehearsal.

Short-term memory (STM) is a chamber in human brain that stores the selected information for further screening and processing. Short-term memory is also called working memory and relates to what we are thinking about at any given moment in time. Short-term memory it is created by our paying attention to an external stimulus, an internal thought, or both. It will initially last somewhere around 15 to 20 seconds unless it is repeated (called maintenance rehearsal) at which point it may be available for up to 20 minutes. The information that is perceived as being important is coded and transmitted to the long term memory and the information that is not coded is dropped and forgotten; it has a limited capacity of holding information.

Long-term memory (LTM) is a chamber in human brain that stores the coded and perceived information. The information accommodated in long term memory can be stored for lifelong and long-term memory can store much larger quantities of information for potentially unlimitedly. Its capacity is immeasurably large. For example, given a random seven-digit number we may remember it for only a few seconds before forgetting, suggesting it was stored in our short-term memory. On the other hand, we can remember telephone numbers for many years through repetition; this information is said to be stored in long-term memory.

Factors that facilitate memory

Memory can be influenced by different factors which are prevailing in our daily experience such as rehearsal, organization, meaningfulness, and attention.[Mwamwenda.T.S.1995]

Recognition is the product of two pieces of in formation ,one being the stimulus and the second is information related to the stimulus that already exists in long term memory .Example if someone recognize an animal ‘cow’ he/she depend on feature are depend on long term memory. In reading it occurs when printing is legible or spelling patterns is familiar.

Rehearsal appears when the information are received in the sensory region is selected for further processing. It involves in repeating/reacting/vocally or sub- vocally the skill or information as many times as necessary to store it in the long term memory. There are two types of Rehearsal namely maintenance Rehearsal and elaborative Rehearsal (Biehler and Snowman1986).

Maintenance rehearsal is the information which may be needed to be remembered for only a relatively short time, as may be the case with a telephone or car registration number that is used any once. Elaborative Rehearsal is the information needed to be remembered for only a relatively longer period and therefore must be stored in long term memory. This type of rehearsal incorporates new information with old information by establishing relationship between old and new information. While a person is involved in elaborative rehearsal, he/she looks for meaningful links such as image, ideas, categories and relationship as they relate to new information. (Davis 1983).

Organization refers to the information to be learned is well organized break it into smaller units and to link those units in the way they relate to each other.

Meaningfulness, if the information being learned as in herent/latent meaning, it will be retained in long term memory. Information meets the criterion of meaningfulness can be related in some way to what a person already knows.

Attention is the process of selecting important information for further processing, according to Leo Francois (1982). Human attention is the process whereby only very small number of stimuli that impinges on us at any given time. It tends to define what is learned and retained in our memory system is function of the attention paid to our experience.

External factors of attention

ü The intensity of stimulus may command attention.

ü Anything that is novel and unusual command attention.

ü May drawn by changing stimuli.

ü Colour my make greater attention than others example red and white dress.

ü Both high and low sound presented at a lime.

Internal factors

ü Being interested of what is going on.

ü Unsatisfied physical or social need.

ü Fatigue affects the level of attention.

ü Level of arousal.

ü Curiosity, exploration and manipulation.

In regard to memory one can either remember or forget his or her past experience.

MEMORY IMPROVEMENT PROCESS AT THE CLASSROOM LEVEL.

1. Gain the students' attention.

Example

Use cues to signal when you are ready to begin.
Move around the room and use voice inflections.

2. Bring to mind relevant prior learning.

Example

Review previous day's lesson.
Have a discussion about previously covered content.

3. Point out important information.

Example

Provide handouts.
Write on the board or use transparencies.

4. Present information in an organized manner.

Example

Show a logical sequence to concepts and skills.
Go from simple to complex when presenting new material.

5. Show students how to categorize (chunk) related information.

Example

Present information in categories.
Teach inductive reasoning.

6. Provide opportunities for students to elaborate on new information.

Example

Connect new information to something already known.
Look for similarities and differences among concepts.

7. Show students how to use coding when memorizing lists.

Example

Make up silly sentence with first letter of each word in the list.
Use mental imagery techniques such as the keyword method.

8. Provide for repetition of learning.

Example

State important principles several times in different ways during presentation of information (STM).
Have items on each day's lesson from previous lesson (LTM).
Schedule periodic reviews of previously learned concepts and skills (LTM).

9. Provide opportunities for overlearning of fundamental concepts and skills.

Example

Use daily drills for arithmetic facts.

General ways to Improvement Memory

These strategies have been established within cognitive psychology literature to improve memory, enhance recall and increase retention of information.

1. Focus your attention on the materials you are studying. Attention is one of the major components of memory. In order for information to move from short-term memory into long-term memory, you need to actively attend to this information. Try to study in a place free of distractions such as television, music and other diversions.

2. Avoid cramming by establishing regular study sessions. According to Bjork (2001), studying materials over a number of session's gives you the time you need to adequately process the information. Research has shown that students who study regularly remember the material far better than those who do all of their studying in one marathon session.

3. Structure and organize the information you are studying. Researchers have found that information is organized in memory in related clusters. You can take advantage of this by structuring and organizing the materials you are studying. Try grouping similar concepts and terms together, or make an outline of your notes and textbook readings to help group related concepts.

4. Utilize mnemonic devices to remember information. Mnemonic devices are a technique often used by students to aid in recall. A mnemonic is simply a way to remember information. For example, you might associate a term you need to remember with a common item that you are very familiar with. The best mnemonics are those that utilize positive imagery, humor or novelty. You might come up with a rhyme, song or joke to help remember a specific segment of information. Example, O.I.P.A for levels of Psychomotor Domain such that O for Observation, I for Imitation, P for Practice and A for Adapting.

5. Elaborate and rehearse the information you are studying. In order to recall information, you need to encode what you are studying into long-term memory. One of the most effective encoding techniques is known as elaborative rehearsal. An example of this technique would be to read the definition of a key term, study the definition of that term and then read a more detailed description of what that term means. After repeating this process a few times, you'll probably notice that recalling the information is much easier.

6. Relate new information to things you already know. When you are studying unfamiliar material, take the time to think about how this information relates to things that you already know. By establishing relationships between new ideas and previously existing memories, you can dramatically increase the likelihood of recalling the recently learned information.

7. Visualize concepts to improve memory and recall. Many people benefit greatly from visualizing the information they study. Pay attention to the photographs, charts and other graphics in your textbooks. If you do not have visual cues to help, try creating your own. Draw charts or figures in the margins of your notes or use highlighters or pens in different colors to group related ideas in your written study materials.

8. Teach new concepts to another person. Research suggests that reading materials out loud significantly improves memory of the material. Educators and psychologists have also discovered that having students actually teach new concepts to others enhances understanding and recall. You can use this approach in your own studies by teaching new concepts and information to a friend or study partner.

9. Pay extra attention to difficult information. Have you ever noticed how it's sometimes easier to remember information at the beginning or end of a chapter? Researchers have found that the order of information can play a role in recall, which is known as the serial position effect. While recalling middle information can be difficult, you can overcome this problem by spending extra time rehearsing this information. Another strategy is to try restructuring what you have learned so it will be easier to remember. When you come across an especially difficult concept, devote some extra time to memorizing the information.

10. Vary your study routine. Another great way to increase your recall is to occasionally change your study routine. If you are accustomed to studying in one specific location, try moving to a different spot during your next study session. If you study in the evening, try spending a few minutes each morning reviewing the information you studied the previous night. By adding an element of novelty to your study sessions, you can increase the effectiveness of your efforts and significantly improve your long-term recall.

FORGETTING

Forgetting (retention loss) refers to apparent loss of information already encoded and stored in an individual's long term memory. It is a spontaneous or gradual process in which old memories are unable to be recalled from memory storage. Problems with remembering, learning and retaining new information are a few of the most common complaints of older adults. Memory performance is usually related to the active functioning of three stages. These three stages are encoding, storage and retrieval. Many different factors influence the actual process of forgetting. An example of one of these factors could be the amount of time the new information is stored in the memory. Events involved with forgetting can happen either before or after the actual memory process. The amount of time the information is stored in the memory, depending on the minutes hours or even days, can increase or decrease depending on how well the information is encoded. Studies show that retention improves the increased rehearsal. This improvement occurs because rehearsal helps to transfer information into long term memory, practice makes perfect.

CAUSES OF FORGETTING

1. Retrieval Failure. Sometimes piece of information can just vanish from memory and maybe you know that it's there, you just can't seem to find it. The inability to retrieve a memory is one of the most common causes of forgetting. Being unable to retrieve information from memory is due to retrieval failure to information decay. According to this theory, a memory trace is created every time a new theory is formed. Decay theory suggests that over time, these memory traces begin to fade and disappear. If information is not retrieved and rehearsed, it will eventually be lost.

2. Interference. Another theory known as interference theory suggests that some memories compete and interfere with other memories. When information is very similar to other information that was previously stored in memory, interference is more likely to occur.

There are two basic types of interference:

Proactive interference is when an old memory makes it more difficult or impossible to remember a new memory.
Retroactive interference occurs when new information interferes with your ability to remember previously learned information.

3. Failure to Store. Sometimes, losing information has less to do with forgetting and more to do with the fact that it never made it into long-term memory in the first place. Encoding failures sometimes prevent information from entering long-term memory. The reason for this is that only details necessary for distinguishing information from other information were encoded into your long-term memory.

4. Motivated Forgetting. Sometimes, we may actively work to forget memories, especially those of traumatic or disturbing events or experiences. The two basic forms of motivated forgetting are: suppression, a conscious form of forgetting, and repression, an unconscious form of forgetting. However, the concept of repressed memories is not universally accepted by all psychologists. One of the problems with repressed memories is that it is difficult, if not impossible, to scientifically study whether or not a memory has been repressed. Also note that mental activities such as rehearsal and remembering are important ways of strengthening a memory, and memories of painful or traumatic life events are far less likely to be remembered, discussed or rehearsed. Information have not been rehearsed or remembered are remarkably stable in long-term memory.

5. Insufficient time to recall, the length of time the information has to be retained that is important. The longer the time, the more the memory trace decays and as a consequence more information is forgotten.

6.Change of environment can cause informational fading typically the learning environment is reinstated at test than when testing occurs in a different environment that is under the different context condition, in which learning and test occur in different environments or environmental manipulations have direct impact on case of memory retention.

7. Amnesia is a deficit in memory caused by brain damage, disease, or psychological trauma. Amnesia can also be caused temporarily by the use of various sedatives and hypnotic drugs. Essentially, amnesia is loss of memory. The memory can be either wholly or partially lost due to the extent of damage that was caused. There are two main types of amnesia: retrograde amnesia and anterograde amnesia. Retrograde amnesia is the inability to retrieve information that was acquired before a particular date, usually the date of an accident or operation. In some cases the memory loss can extend back decades, while in others the person may lose only a few months of memory. Anterograde amnesia is the inability to transfer new information from the short-term store into the long-term store.

EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF FORGETTING

Ø Teachers are required to facilitate their learners memory in order to make learning on both school and out of school to be coded and stored.

Ø Retrieving by means of learning recollection and recall are essential means to their learners improving questions.

Ø Teachers should assist their learner memories by variety of methods such as note taking, periodic review and over learning.

INTELLIGENCE

Intelligence is what enables people to think, act and behave in a manner that is generally acceptable to their society. This facilitates their judgment socially, intellectually and physically. Davis (1983) defined intelligence as the ability to lean quickly, solve problems, understand complex and abstract issues and generally behave in reasonable, rational and purposeful manners. Every human being has intelligence.

FACTORS AFFECTING INTELLIGENCE

1) Heredity and Environment: Heredity provided the physical body to be developed with certain inherent capabilities while environment provides for the maturation and training of the organism.

During an individual’s life time variation in I.Q. is due to environment, since the heredity cannot change. Improved nutrition health, an stimulus situations would account for this change. Environment of children ages 2 to 4 years appears to be critical since the child normally learns language at this time. Better homes, school, medical facilities, less economic discrimination. Provides a mean for achieving a mentally able population.

2) Age: A person who bright or dull in childhood tends to remain bright or dull throughout his life. Growth I intelligence can continue through the early twenties, person achieves his maximum 10 at about 20 years are and remain stable till 10 years and decreases after that. Some abilities remain constant while others decline rapidly due to decline in physical efficiency. It is observed that the more intelligent person has more rapid of mental growth and continues to develop longer than does the mentally less able.

3) Race and Nationality: There is no prominent evidence to show that race in a factor for determining intellectual level. Difference exist between families are due to environment. The differences in races are also due to opportunity for training in early years.

All evidence indicates that there is little or no difference in inherited intellectual capacity due to race. There are differences, mostly due to opportunities for training and learning. The idea of inferior races due to heredity is not true.

4) Culture: Answer in intelligent test question are highly cultural. Cultural will determine the degree of a person’s attitude and abilities.

5) Health and Physical Development: Physical and mental health is related to one’s ability to gain desired achievement. A mental activity with delicate health, one may not possess enough energy to engage in mental activity to the extent that he achieves success. Physical defects such as in complete maturation of brain cells sensory and physical handicaps many interfere with observable intelligent behavior. Diseases also affect intelligence. Emotional bodies may interferes one’s ability. Unfavorable health affects mental status of the individual.

6) Sex: It is a popular belief that boys are supposed to be more intelligent than girls. The research studies have shown that there is no significant differences between the sexes, on the average, girls seems to show slight superiority in language, memory and appreciation. Differences in intelligence are caused partly by environmental conditions

7) Social and Economic Conditions: Home plays a significance role in the early developmental years. Home conditions influence on behaviours attitude. The financial status or the parents, neighborhood and environmental conditions also affect on the intelligence but due to their soci-economic status.

INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENT (1Q)

Is the score representing the relationship between mental age and chronological age. Everyone has intelligence quotient one person have more than average, the other less than average and others at average rate.

CALCULATION OF IQ

This is done mathematically from the application of the formula;

IQ = Intelligence quotient

MA = Mental age

CA = Chronological age

IQ =MA/CA X 100

Example: James has the mental age 8 years and age of born 10 years. Find the intelligence quotient of James. IQ=8/10 X 100

IQ= 80%

School of thought in development of intelligence there are three (3) approaches.

i. Hereditist approach

ii. Environment approach

iii. Internationalists

USES OF 1Q TEST/EDUCATION IMPLICATION

Ø Used in provision of needs of special children such as gifted.

Ø Used in diagnosing learners with problems

Ø Used as a basis for assigning learners to special programs or institutions.

Ø Tests assist vocation and educational counselors.

Ø Used to test such as the Wechsler pre-school and primary scale of intelligence and McCarthy scale of children’s abilities are useful aids of assessing maturation and development factor and this for predicting success an elementary school/levels.

Example

Level of Education	Correlation Coefficient
Elementary/Primary	60-70
Secondary/	50-60
College /University	40-50
Graduate school	30-40

On the other hand, it has been known that information memorized in the brain are subject to consolidation to make more general experience-independent forms of knowledge. Memory traces from past experiences are played back before performing actions in similar or relevant contexts.

Meanwhile, forgetting may take place removing or suppressing less useful memory items. This forgetting dynamics of memory has been recognized as computationally beneficial to reduce inconsistency and the complexity of reasoning by discarding irrelevant information. In multiagent

systems, forgetting can also be useful for resolving conflicts between agents.

TAFUTA

Kuhusu Sisi

Kumbukumbu

Blog Mbalimbali

HAKI MILIKI

MAWASILIANO

JIUNGE NASI

Memory,forgetting and intelligence

0 Maoni:

Post a Comment